John Lock’Es View on Innate Knowledge

Innate ideas John Locke, a renowned English philosopher in the seventeenth century, argued against the pre-existing prevalent belief of innate knowledge, such as those led by Descartes. Many of Locke’s arguments begin with criticisms on philosophers’ opinion on innate knowledge, notably Descartes. Therefore, many of Locke’s arguments are direct rebuttals of Descartes and other philosophers’ beliefs about the existence of innate knowledge. To arrive at the conclusion that innate knowledge is impossible, Locke comes with various premises and rebuttals that add weight to his arguments.First, Locke emphasizes that knowledge and ideas are learned through experience, not innately. He argues that people’s minds at birth are ‘blank slate’ that is later filled through experience. Here, the ‘senses’ play an important role because ‘the knowledge of some truths, as Locke confesses, is very in the mind; but in a way that shows the m not to be innate’. By this, Locke argues that some ideas are actually in the mind from an early age but these ideas are furnished by the senses starting in the womb. For example, the color blue and the blueness’ of something is not that which is learned innately but is some is learned through exposures to a blue object or thing. So if we do have a universal understanding of ‘blueness’, it is because we are exposed to blue objects ever since we were young. The blue sky is what many would acquaint with blue easily and at a young age. Second, Locke argues that people have no innate principles. Locke contended that innate principles rely upon innate ideas within people but such innate ideas do not exist. He says this on the basis that there is no ‘universal consent’ that everyone agrees upon.Locke quotes that ‘There is nothing more commonly taken for granted that there are certain principles universally agreed upon by all mankind, but ther e are none to which all mankind give a universal assent’. This argues against the very foundation of the idea of innate knowledge because principles that garner universal assent are thought to be known innately, simply because it is the best explanation available. However, it cannot even be an explanation for such belief because no ‘universal consent’ exists. Rationalists argue that there are in fact ome principles that are universally agreed upon, such as the principle of identity. But it is far-fetched to claim that everyone knows this principle of identity because for the least, children and idiots, the less-intelligent ones are not acquainted with it. There are several objections to these premises and arguments that are outlined above. The argument by Locke that there are some ideas that are in the mind at an early age gives credence to argument for the innate ideas. For ideas to be furnished by the senses later on there has to be ideas that are laid as found ations.If such ideas are innate, as acknowledged by Locke, no matter how trivial or less significant these ideas may be as one may argue, such claim could give weight to the idea of innate knowledge. Innate knowledge or ideas, after all, doesn’t imply that all ideas are innate because as one can see, there are things that we learn through our experiences and encounters in life as well. So as long as there is even the basic principle that is innate early in life, then innate knowledge can be known to exist. The validity behind the claim that there is no ‘universal consent’ is also questionable.Locke argues that no principle that all mankind agrees upon exists because there are those who are not acquainted with such principle, notably children and idiots. However, the terms children and idiots are somewhat misguided. How are children and especially the idiots categorized? Is there a specific criteria used for those who are classified as idiots? It is hard to genera lize that idiots or those who are deemed less intelligent are not acquainted with certain principles because at times, intelligence is not the best indicator of someone’s knowledge or ideas.There are many intelligent people out there who take their status for granted and do not think, contemplate or make an effort to their best extent. The objections that are made against the initial arguments can be defended in certain ways. Regarding the objection that since there are innate ideas in the mind at an early age, innate knowledge exists, the term ‘innate’ should be thought of again in greater detail. Innate knowledge has to be significant enough for us to recount to be considered such. Thus, there comes a risk with considering the ideas within our minds early on as innate.For example, the knowledge of our hands and feet maybe imbedded to us at a very early stage. The knowledge of using our hands and feet are not so significant. The knowledge that we gain through ou r use of hands and feet could be vital knowledge that we may recount throughout. Throwing a baseball properly under a coach’s instructions is an example. Also, there is the claim that intelligence cannot be the sole indicator of one’s acquisition of ‘universal consent’ and that there isn’t a clear distinction of those who can understand universal principles to those who cannot.However, the important focus here should not be on defining ‘idiots’ and intelligence but on that universal consent is hard to be assembled by every single mankind. Therefore, more should be considered than just innate knowledge that could garner universal consent. Empirical principles that are derived from experience could garner universal assent too. For example, the fear of ‘dying’ or ‘getting seriously injured’ could mean that people would not jump out the roof from tall buildings. And this belief could be universal among all.

Primal Leadership Case Essay

The article Primal Leadership centres around emotional intelligence and the authors investigation into how a leaders mood or â€Å"emotional style† filters through the organisation and can affect the bottom-line results. If a leader is able to recognise this, they can monitor their own moods through self awareness, change them accordingly and act in the ways that will boost others moods which in turn will help the company’s performance. Studies show that when a leader is in a happy mood then the people surrounding them view things in a more positive light. An upbeat environment fosters mental efficiency – making people better at staying focussed, retaining information and therefore better at their jobs. Emotional intelligence affects the whole company’s performance, so it would be easy to assume that a manager with a positive outlook or disposition would raise the company’s performance. But emotional leadership isn’t just fake or putting on a game face every day, it is necessary to understand the impact you have on other employees as a leader. The more we act a certain way – for example happy – the more the behaviour becomes ingrained in our brain circuitry, and the more we will continue to feel and act that way. The key points made in Primal Leadership are covered by the authors in the five step program they recommend to help leader’s achieve higher levels of emotional intelligence. This process is based on brain science rather than more traditional forms of coaching, and has been designed to help leader’s rewire their brain towards these more emotionally intelligent behaviours. Step 1 – â€Å"Who do I want to be?† This step asks the leader to picture the kind of leader they aspire to be and what that emotional leadership looks like. Step 2 – â€Å"Who am I now?† This step is where the leader comes to terms with seeing their leadership style as others do, through receiving feedback from peers, bosses and subordinates. A key issue highlighted for this step is that as a society we tend to avoid talking about a leader’s emotional style and its impact in case we are perceived as being ‘soft’. Another key issue is that of resonance. How do leaders know if they have resonance within their organisation? Primal Leadership points out that employees don’t want to be the messenger for fear of being punished, and can often even feel as if it isn’t their place to confront a leader on this personal topic. So the way that they suggest CEO’s, manager’s and/or leader’s get the full picture is through feedback from not only subordinates but also peers, bosses and mentors. Step 3 – â€Å"How do I get from here to there?† The identification of the gap in emotional intelligence for the leader helps decide the action process of getting the leader from who they are now to the leader they aspire to be. Adapting in accordance with regular feedback, the leader can work on their mood and performance therefore affecting all the people they work with in a more positive way. Goleman, Boyatzis and McKee also state that leader’s should look at areas outside of work to close the gaps in their emotional intelligence, for example coaching a sports team or volunteering. Step 4 – â€Å"How do I make the changes stick?† Goleman, Boyatzis and Mc Kee explain that the way to lasting change and a leader’s growth in emotional intelligence is rehearsing or even visualising the new behaviour until it becomes automatic or implicitly learnt. Imagining an activity or response in vivid detail can fire up the same brain cells involved in actually doing that activity. Step 5 – â€Å"Who can help me?† The last step Primal Leadership recommends is the forming of a community of supporters. The authors emphasise how important it is to have these relationships and feedback from people you trust because these supporters are necessary in order to improve your emotional intelligence and help change leadership style. The bottom line in this case for me is emotional leadership is the spark that ignites a company’s performance, and leader’s need to understand how their mood is so influential to a business’s success, and therefore a leader’s most important task should be emotional leadership. It seems so obvious and full of common sense that advancing their emotional intelligence should be a leadership priority, and yet there are so many toxic work environments out there. Happy, positive moods might filter down from bosses to floor staff, but it will only result in happy people if the sentiments are genuine. In my opinion, leader’s need to be aware that an overly enthusiastic, fake happy boss can be just as toxic to a work environment as a grouchy one. It is not often that someone is told how their current personal mood is affecting their job performance or the business’s success – especially in New Zealand, where the culture expects a â€Å"tough† attitude and unfortunately the topic may be considered as â€Å"soft†. I know from personal experience how hard it is to give honest feedback to a terrible or intimidating boss, but if all leader’s took the time to go through Goleman, Boyatzis and Mc Kee’s five step program and evaluate/improve themselves as leaders then there would be a lot more happy employees.

The impasse situation

People want these concerns met (neither excessively nor minimally) but to the appropriate extent. Three standards can be used in measuring the extent to which others are treating these concerns. They are to determine whether the approach to these concerns is fair, is honest and is consistent with current circumstances. According to Webster’s dictionary, an impasse is a point in especially labor negotiations at which reaching an agreement is impossible because neither party is willing to compromise or change position.The impasse situation I would like to analyze is one where the technical and business teams are working on an initiative. The technical team is taking the lead role. The business team is not cooperative because they believe that the technical team always takes the glory on these types of projects. This conflict has now become an impasse because the business team is not forthcoming with the information that is needed to move the project forward. The concern I would address at such an impasse is that of Status.It appears that the business team believes that their relative standing is being treated as inferior to others. To meet this concern, as leader of the technical team, I would give full recognition to the business team. This recognition is well deserved because the business team is close to the operations and has a full understanding of the business requirements. I would introduce the business partners by status and designation and recognize their previous contributions at projects of this nature. I would even go as far as saying that these initiatives could not get done without the business partners.All memos and status reports would be co-signed by the technical and the technical team leaders to show contribution from both teams. By doing this I would be able to overcome any adversarial behavior due to this misconception. Instead, this would encourage co-operative behavior and creative solutions to the problem as well as trust between bo th teams. References Fisher R. , Shapiro D. , 2005. Beyond reason: using emotions as you negotiate. New York: Viking. pp. 15-21. impasse. (n. d. ). Merriam-Webster's Dictionary of Law. Retrieved August 07, 2007, from Dictionary. com website: http://dictionary. reference. com/browse/impasse

Congress Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Congress - Essay Example The US Congress consists of 435 voting members in the House of Representatives and 100 voting members in the US Senate, totaling to 535 members of the legislature. This paper will seek to discuss the organization and structure of Congress, membership of Congress, general Congressional authority, and modern problems facing Congress. Organization and Structure of Congress The United States Congress’ organizational structure is based on the Constitution, enacted legislation with presidential assent, and rules created by Senate and the House of Representatives. Congress is a bicameral legislature, meaning it is made up of 2 bodies with legislative power; Senate and the House of Representatives (Smith et al, 2011). Prior to being sent to the executive, legislation has to pass through both chambers and approved. The Senate has one hundred members with the US Vice President being the chamber’s president and being the only official ion government who serves in two government br anches, although in a largely ceremonial role and votes when there is a tie. The actual functional leader is the majority Leader of Senate who is selected by either party depending on which has the most members (Smith et al, 2011), while the minority leader is head of the other party. The lower chamber of Congress is the House of Representatives made up of some 435 members with voting privileges. This chamber is led by the House Speaker elected by members of the party with a majority (Smith et al, 2011). The second most powerful member in this chamber is the majority leader of the house whose selection is also carried out by the party with the majority, while the party with the minority is headed by the Minority leader. Because of these differences in organizational structure, the voting rules in both houses are also different. For the House of Representatives, majority vote of those present is considered in passing legislation, while a supermajority of 60 is used in Senate. Subcomm ittees and committees do most of the duties carried out in both chambers of Congress where legislation under proposal is first considered (Smith et al, 2011). If a committee approves legislation, it becomes a bill and moves to the Senate or House of Representatives to be considered and ultimately voted on. Membership in Congress In the House of Representatives, members represent people living in a district and serve for a term of two years. The results of the US Census are used to apportion Congressional Districts to states with each state having at least one congressman or woman. Regardless of census results, every state has two Senators, each of whom serves six years (Bianco, 2010). Election of Senate members is staggered to ensure that a third of the house is up for election after two years. These groups of Senators are referred to as classes and each state has senators from different classes. The House of Representatives, as suggested by its name, is considered the most represen tative for the American population. Tied to their election, members of Congress work for periods of two years, each of which is referred to as a Congress, beginning from the start of the year after an election (Bianco, 2010). In order to become a member of the House of Representatives, one must be 25 years of age, while a Senator must be at least thirty years of age. With regards to citizenship, the US Constitution holds that hopefuls for membership to the House of

Computer Forensics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Computer Forensics - Essay Example We live in borderless world. Although people our bounded by geographic terrain, the World Wide Web has made it possible for people to connect with each other with a click of the mouse. Truly, this is a wonderful world to live. With this added convenience, old problems have begun to take on new forms. Before, crimes involving money usually involved the use of physical harassment and coercion. Banks get robbed, and even some personnel were killed. Some rich or well-to-do people found themselves abducted for ransom. But today, theft is more insidious and even subtle. One may not realize that he or she has been a victim already. When the Internet got into the hands of many people and that life has become intertwined with it, more and more people have become susceptible to crimes committed via the Internet, usually termed as cybercrime. This paper shall survey the emerging technologies that are being used against cybercrime. In particular, we shall take a look at the developments happening in the field of computer forensics and how law-enforcement agencies are capitalizing on these. But for a start, let us examine what cybercrimes are. Etymologically speaking, cybercrimes are crimes committed via the world-wide web. Although no rigorous definition of it has been formulated, we can accept the common sense definition as useful. Examples of cybercrimes are "gaining unauthorized access to computer files, disrupting the operation of remote computers with viruses, worms, logic bombs, Trojan horses, and denial of service attacks; distributing and creating child pornography, stealing another's identity; selling contraband, and stalking victims." (Nesson, 2001) Almost everyone knows about the damages inflicted by Melissa and ILOVEYOU viruses. Once in a while, a news report features the arrest of a hacker or a perpetrator of identity theft. These are not just petty crimes; they struck damages to our economy. As a matter of fact, the FBI reports an annual loss of about $ 67 Billion due to such acts. (Cybercrime, 2007). Computer Forensics With these in mind, there must be found a way to prevent these crimes. If not, perhaps prosecution of the criminal will suffice. We should look to our law-enforcing agencies with their use of Computer Forensics. Computer Forensics is similar to the regular forensics procedures done by law enforcers, such as those seen in CSI. Computer forensics is "a detailed and scientific study, research and implementation of computer science subjects for the purpose of gathering digital evidence in cases of cyber crimes or for other scientific research purposes." In computer networks, experts use packet sniffing, IP address tracing and email address tracing. (Vyavhare, 2007) Packet sniffing is the retrieval of crucial data packets from networks. These may contain usernames or passwords used by cybercriminals. IP addresses are unique, but sometimes criminals use proxy. The goal of IP address tracing is to trace the real IP address of the culprit. Email tracing is used when it is possible that the cybercriminal is still in the location where a questionable email has been sent. If not, by tracing the email, this may provide valuable clues. In computer systems, the computer forensics expert, analyzes the file structure, checks the storage media, uses steganography (the art of concealing information in images, sounds, or any unconventional file format), and

See instructions Statistics Project Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

See instructions - Statistics Project Example of interest in analyzing and strategizing on how to minimize the future occurrence of the occupational assaults and the impacts it has on the nursing staff. I was very keen on the previous findings in this study. In this article, the main aim was to add the prevalent data to the established literature and review other relevant articles in this field. The article is outstanding as it explores the issues that are related to the occupational health and the safety for the mental health nurses which is regarded as the occupational violence. In this appraisal study, research was carried out due to the recognition of the international nursing council about the increased violence in nursing. This was also supported by various studies in industries in Australia about the violence in the nursing industry that occurred on a weekly basis. From the report, the problem has become international as it affects all the nurses in the world. Furthermore, the study reveals that that violence in nursing is affected by several factors and other environmental factors. Thus, the study centered on demographics in the prevalence in relation to age, workplace, and gender as far as occupational violence is concerned. The article also centers on the perception of the staff in the management of occupational violence. In the article, ethical considerations were taken seriously as it was approved by the human research ethics committee. The study also involved a descriptive survey as it involved the nurses from both the psychiatric and the community based departments. The study was effective as it developed a questionnaire that was very comprehensive in its analysis. Finally, I would like to congratulate Mc Kinnon and cross for their analytical work in this article. Therefore, it is with gratitude that they may release another edition that focuses on nursing problems. McKinnon, B., Cross, W. (2008). Occupational violence and assault in mental health nursing: A scoping project for a Victorian

Equity And Trust Law Assignment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Equity And Trust Law Assignment - Essay Example In both areas Lord Diplock can be seen to challenge the validity of legal technicalities and create a more just legal system with a move away from ‘natural justice’ in individual determinations to general principles of fairness towards the wider public. Lord Diplock’s key contributions to equity law occurred in: 1) In United Scientific Holdings Ltd v Burnley Borough Council [1978]1, Lord Diplock proclaimed that the systems had, quite simply, become fused and that no distinction was to be drawn between law and equity. This statement by Lord Diplock was accepted unanimously by the judges in the House of Lords and propelled the debate on this issue further. The case concerned the timing of the service of notices triggering rent-review clauses. 2) In Gissing v Gissing [1971]2; on the subject of equitable rights and the interests of the beneficiary in a trust case, Lord Diplock suggested that it did not matter whether the trust was seen as a constructive, resulting or other form of implied trust. Lord Diplock's judgment in Gissing effectively created what is now referred to as a common intention constructive trust. Essentially Diplock held that where the legal title to a property was owned by one person, cohabitees would be held to share a beneficial interest in the property even if they had not contributed directly to the purchase price (thus falling beyond the protection of the resulting trust) as long as they could provide evidence that both cohabitees had a common intention that the beneficial interest would be shared, and that the legal owner had induced the beneficiary to act to his own detriment in reliance of this agreement. Crucially, however, he saw no need to properly establish the boundaries of this principle, or to distinguish common intention constructive trusts from implied or presumed resulting trusts. Lord Diplock's failure to properly distinguish between resulting and constructive trusts has led to a very dangerous ambiguity and uncertainty in this area of law, which has arguably, ever since threatened to defeat precisely what Lord Diplock set out to achieve: the protection of the cohabitee with no legal title. 3) Pettitt v Pettitt [1970]3; this case established that a person who claims to have contributed to the purchase price of property which stands in the name of him/herself and another can rely on the well known presumption of equity that a person who has contributed a share of the purchase price of property is entitled to a corresponding proportionate beneficial interest in the property by way of implied or resulting trust. This ‘presumption of advancement rule’ in resulting trusts has been widely criticised as anachronistic. In particular, the gender bias of the rule is no longer acceptable; in fact it contravenes Article 5 of the Seventh Protocol to the European Convention on Human Rights.4 Lord Diplock described it as being based on the mores of propertied classes of the nineteenth ce ntury with little relevance to modern life. As Lord Diplock put it; â€Å"The emergence of a property-owning, particularly a real-property-mortgaged-to-a-building-society-owning, democracy requires the presumption to be reconsidered.†5 4) Hadmor Productions Ltd v Hamilton [1982]6; in this case Lord Diplock held that the Court of Appeal was

Currency Act Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Currency Act - Essay Example The government could decide to sidestep the initial referendum because of its own notion that such votes are not legally binding; in this respect it would be correct (Mendelsohn and Parkin 47-51). The fact remains, however, that the original Currency Act held that the pound sterling could not be changed as the official currency of Great Britain until a referendum had been held. By bypassing this element of the original Act, the British government could be held accountable for the changed currency in any way prosecutors saw fit. The change from the pound sterling into the weaker euro could mean that any number of businesses would face monetary challenges in the way of investment, wages and ultimately in profit; if the right people with the means to bring the issue up did so, the government would have to admit it simply ignored the referendum aspect of the original Currency Act. Despite the fact that an amendment or repeal to the Currency Act is, in effect, illegal without referendum, the establishment of the euro as the official currency of Great Britain would not be too difficult a feat if the government was decided on a course of action. This is particularly true because of the European Monetary Institute.

Compare and contrast the films Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Compare and contrast the films - Essay Example The objective of the paper is to compare these movies based on different parameters. Theme is the one of the most important parameters in the analysis of the movies since it is related to the subject being explored by the movie. The theme of Requiem for a Dream is about addition while Pi, The Fountain, and Black Swan are about obsession. The newest movie Noah is about humanity and overcoming challenges. Basically, Aronofsky is known for artsy presentation of theme even to the point of being weird, puzzling and analytical. All of the movies that he directed needs an in depth analysis or one can just enjoy the taste and the artistic manner the theme or subject is presented. With regards to camera work, both Requiem for the Dream and Pi used both a steady and a shaky camera. On the other hand the films The Fountain and Black Swan just used steady camera. Noah used steady camera with wide views due to expanse of the theme. Aronofsky is known to use shaky camera to present the feel of the movie being first hand and even more experiential. According to an observation of his work, he is even known to put cameras on actors to be able to achieve a different perspective, thus, achieving the shaky camera effect (IMDb bio). Editing of the films used either abrupt cut or slow transition for his films. In the Requiem for a Dream and Pi, Aronofsky used abrupt cuts between scenes while The Fountain, Black Swan and Noah used slow transitions between scenes. Compared to the other two movies which is presented in a more artistic, mysterious and affective manner, the latter movies are more dramatic in nature and theme. The fast and short cuts is one of the techniques he is known for which is referred to as hip-hop montage or the fast presentation of scenes and images with a background music to stress an exciting event or even the use of different types of addictive substances which

Study Notes Essay Example for Free

Study Notes Essay Discussion Module The Scope And Challenge 1.1 Assignment. â€Å"The marketer’s task is the same whether applied in Dime Box, Texas, or Dar es Salaam, Tanzania.† Critique this statement and use real-world examples to support your analysis. Analysis. One of the most significant of these similarities is the need for organizations to have a paradigm shift in their marketing perspective from local or national marketing to accessing the global market. Regardless of their country of origin or their product or service, it is becoming increasing critical for companies to look beyond their national boarders in order to maintain their market share (Cateora, Gilley, Graham, 2013, p. 10). I believe that even if companies do not currently depend on foreign markets it is critical that they should examine and create new market strategies that access international markets in order to maintain their competitive edge. Real World Example. I work for a company that has just finished a new phase of construction on additional buildings in order to increase the number of students that we an accept. Looking at international markets is a great answer to increasing our admissions. References: Cateora, Philip R., Gilly, Mary C., Graham, John L. (2013). International Marketing, Sixteenth Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hall/Irwin. Culture and Marketing 1.2 Assignment. The marketer â€Å"should also examine the more complex effect of geography upon general market characteristics, distribution systems, and the state of the economy.† Critique this statement and give real-world examples to support your argument. Analysis and Real World Example. It is interesting to me as I read on the issues of language and culture as companies expand across international borders. I lived in Brazil for several years and it amazed me how the Brazilian youth in general were enamored with products from the US. Products such as Nike and other athletic gear were especially popular. The general image that Brazilians had of the sub culture of US sport athletes and their success as sport stars was enough to boost sales for Nike. If companies researched and built their marketing campaigns around these perceptions and sub cultures they would be able to tap into addition markets and significantly increased profits. The text refers to the problems that the Mexican based grocery chain, Gigante, had with marketing â€Å"Bimbo† bread in their stores. Perhaps if they had of researched and significantly marketed products that had a positive or popular connotation to US consumers they would have had an easier time receiving approval to open stores in Anaheim, California, just as Nike might have done with the youth market in Brazil. (Cateora, Gilley, Graham, 2013, p.14). References Cateora, Philip R., Gilly, Mary C., Graham, John L. (2013). International Marketing, Sixteenth Edition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hall/Irwin.

The Topic Of Brain Fingerprinting Criminology Essay

The Topic Of Brain Fingerprinting Criminology Essay Brain fingerprinting is based on finding that the brain generates a unique brain wave pattern when a person encounters a familiar stimulus Use of functional magnetic resonance imagingin lie detection derives from studies suggesting that personsasked to lie show different patterns of brain activity thanthey do when being truthful. Issues related to the use of suchevidence in courts are discussed. The author concludes thatneither approach is currently supported by enough data regardingits accuracy in detecting deception to warrant use in court. In the field of criminology, a new lie detector has been developed in the United States of America. This is called brain fingerprinting. This invention is supposed to be the best lie detector available as on date and is said to detect even smooth criminals who pass the polygraph test (the conventional lie detector test) with ease. The new method employs brain waves, which are useful in detecting whether the person subjected to the test, remembers finer details of the crime. Even if the person willingly suppresses the necessary information, the brain wave is sure to trap him. Introduction: Brain Fingerprinting is a controversial proposed investigative technique that measures recognition of familiar stimuli by measuring electrical brain wave responses to words, phrases, or pictures that are presented on a computer screen. Brain fingerprinting was invented by Lawrence Farwell. The theory is that the suspects reaction to the details of an event or activity will reflect if the suspect had prior knowledge of the event or activity. This test uses what Farwell calls the MERMER (Memory and Encoding Related Multifaceted Electroencephalographic Response) response to detect familiarity reaction. One of the applications is lie detection. Dr. Lawrence A. Farwell has invented, developed, proven, and patented the technique of Farwell Brain Fingerprinting, a new computer-based technology to identify the perpetrator of a crime accurately and scientifically by measuring brain-wave responses to crime-relevant words or pictures presented on a computer screen. Farwell Brain Fingerprinting has proven 100% accurate in over 120 tests, including tests on FBI agents, tests for a US intelligence agency and for the US Navy, and tests on real-life situations including actual crimes. What is Brain Fingerprinting? Brain Fingerprinting is designed to determine whether an individual recognizes specific information related to an event or activity by measuring electrical brain wave responses to words, phrases, or pictures presented on a computer screen.   The technique can be applied only in situations where investigators have a sufficient amount of specific information about an event or activity that would be known only to the perpetrator and investigator.   In this respect, Brain Fingerprinting is considered a type of Guilty Knowledge Test, where the guilty party is expected to react strongly to the relevant detail Existing (polygraph) procedures for assessing the validity of a suspects guilty knowledge rely on measurement of autonomic arousal (e.g., palm sweating and heart rate), while Brain Fingerprinting measures electrical brain activity via a fitted headband containing special sensors.   Brain Fingerprinting is said to be more accurate in detecting guilty knowledge distinct from the f alse positives of traditional polygraph methods, but this is hotly disputed by specialized researchers. Technique: The person to be tested wears a special headband with electronic sensors that measure the electroencephalography from several locations on the scalp. In order to calibrate the brain fingerprinting system, the testee is presented with a series of irrelevant stimuli, words, and pictures, and a series of relevant stimuli, words, and pictures. The test subjects brain response to these two different types of stimuli allow the testor to determine if the measured brain responses to test stimuli, called probes, are more similar to the relevant or irrelevant responses. The technique uses the well known fact that an electrical signal known as P300 is emitted from an individuals brain approximately 300 milliseconds after it is confronted with a stimulus of special significance, e.g. a rare vs. a common stimuls or a stimulas the prOband is asked to count. The novel interpretation in brain fingerprinting is to look for P300 as response to stimuli related to the crime in question e.g., a murder weapon or a victims face. Because it is based on EEG signals, the system does not require the testee to issue verbal responses to questions or stimuli. Brain fingerprinting uses cognitive brain responses, brain fingerprinting does not depend on the emotions of the subject, nor is it affected by emotional responses. Brain fingerprinting is fundamentally different from the polygraph (lie-detector), which measures emotion-based physiological signals such as heart rate, sweating, and blood pressure. Also, unlike polygraph testing, it does not attempt to determine whether or not the subject is lying or telling the truth. Four phases of Farwell Brain Fingerprinting: In fingerprinting and DNA fingerprinting, evidence recognized and collected at the crime scene, and preserved properly until a suspect is apprehended, is scientifically compared with evidence on the person of the suspect to detect a match that would place the suspect at the crime scene. Farwell Brain Fingerprinting works similarly, except that the evidence collected both at the crime scene and on the person of the suspect (i.e., in the brain as revealed by electrical brain responses) is informational evidence rather than physical evidence. There are four stages to Farwell Brain Fingerprinting, which are similar to the steps in fingerprinting and DNA fingerprinting: 1. Brain Fingerprinting Crime Scene Evidence Collection; 2. Brain Fingerprinting Brain Evidence Collection; 3. Brain Fingerprinting Computer Evidence Analysis; and 4. Brain Fingerprinting Scientific Result. In the Crime Scene Evidence Collection, an expert in Farwell Brain Fingerprinting examines the crime scene and other evidence connected with the crime to identify details of the crime that would be known only to the perpetrator. The expert then conducts the Brain Evidence Collection in order to determine whether or not the evidence from the crime scene matches evidence stored in the brain of the suspect. In the Computer Evidence Analysis, the Farwell Brain Fingerprinting system makes a mathematical determination as to whether or not this specific evidence is stored in the brain, and computes a statistical confidence for that determination. This determination and statistical confidence constitute the Scientific Result of Farwell Brain Fingerprinting: either information present the details of the crime are stored in the brain of the suspect or information absent the details of the crime are not stored in the brain of the suspect. Applications: Counter terrorism: Brain fingerprinting can help address the following critical elements in the fight against terrorism: 1: Aid in determining who has participated in terrorist acts, directly or indirectly. 2: Aid in identifying trained terrorists with the potential  to commit future terrorist acts, even if they are in a sleeper cell and have not been active for years. 3: Help to identify people who have knowledge or training in banking, finance or communications and who are associated with terrorist teams and acts. 4: Help to determine if an individual is in a leadership role within a terrorist organization. Brain fingerprinting technology is based on the principle that the brain is central to all human acts. In a terrorist act, there may or may not be peripheral evidence such as fingerprints or DNA, but the brain of the perpetrator is always there, planning, executing, and recording the crime. The terrorist has knowledge of organizations, training and plans that an innocent person does not have. Until the invention of Brain Fingerprinting testing, there was no scientific way to detect this fundamental difference. Brain Fingerprinting testing provides an accurate, economical and timely solution to the central problem in the fight against terrorism. It is now possible to determine scientifically whether or not a person has terrorist training and knowledge of terrorist activities. With the Brain Fingerprinting system, a significant scientific breakthrough has now become a practical applied technology. A new era in security and intelligence gathering has begun. Now, terrorists and those supporting terrorism can be identified quickly and accurately. No longer should any terrorist be able to evade justice for lack of evidence. And there is no reason why an innocent individual should be falsely imprisoned or convicted of terrorist activity. A Brain Fingerprinting test can determine with an extremely high degree of accuracy those who are involved with terrorist activity and those who are not. Criminal justice: A critical task of the criminal justice system is to determine who has committed a crime. The key difference between a guilty party and an innocent suspect is that the perpetrator of the crime has a record of the crime stored in their brain, and the innocent suspect does not. Until the invention of Brain Fingerprintingtesting, there was no scientifically valid way to detect this fundamental difference. Brain Fingerprinting testing does not prove guilt or innocence. That is the role of a judge and jury. This exciting technology gives the judge and jury new, scientifically valid evidence to help them arrive at their decision. DNA evidence and fingerprints are available in only about 1% of major crimes. It is estimated that Brain Fingerprinting testing will apply in approximately 60 to 70% of these major crimes. The impacts on the criminal justice system will be profound. The potential now exists to significantly improve the speed and accuracy of the entire system, from investigations to parole hearings. Brain Fingerprinting testing will be able to dramatically reduce the costs associated with investigating and prosecuting innocent people and allow law enforcement professionals to concentrate on suspects who have verifiable, detailed knowledge of the crimes. Medical: Brain Fingerprinting is the patented technology that can measure objectively, for the first time, how memory and cognitive functioning of Alzheimer sufferers are affected by medications. First generation tests have proven to be more accurate than other routinely used tests, and could be commercially available in 18-24 months. The 30 minute test involves wearing a headband with built-in electrodes; technicians then present words, phrases and images that are both known and unknown to the patient to determine whether information that should be in the brain is still there. When presented with familiar information, the brain responds by producing MERMERs, specific increases in neuron activity. The technician can use this response to measure how quickly information is disappearing from the brain and whether the drugs they are taking are slowing down the process. Additional Applications: In advertising, Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories will offer significant advances in measuring campaign and media effectiveness. Most advertising programs today are evaluated subjectively using focus groups. We will be able to offer significantly more advanced, scientific methods to help determine the effectiveness of campaigns and be very cost competitive with current methodologies. This technology will be able to help determine what information is actually retained in memory by individuals. For example, in a branding campaign do people remember the brand, the product, etc. and how do the results vary with demographics? We will also be able to measure the comparative effectiveness of multiple media types. In the insurance industry, Brain Fingerprinting Laboratories will be able to help reduce the incidence of insurance fraud by determining if an individual has knowledge of fraudulent or criminal acts. The same type of testing can help to determine if an individual has specific knowl edge related to computer crimes where there is typically no witness or physical evidence. Case studies: The biggest breakthrough, according to Farwell, was its role in freeing convicted murderer Terry Harrington, who had been serving a life sentence in Iowa State Penitentiary for killing a night watchman in 1977. In 2001, Harrington requested a new trial on several grounds, including conflicting testimony in the original trial. Farwell was faced with an immediate and obvious problem: 24 years had passed since the trial. Evidence had been presented and transcripts published long ago; the details of the crime had long since come to light. What memories of the crime were left to probe? But Farwell combed the transcripts and came up with obscure details about which to test Harrington. Harrington was granted a new trial when it was discovered that some of the original police reports in the case had been missing at his initial trial. By 2001, however, most of the witnesses against Harrington had either died or had been discredited. Finally, when a key witness heard that Harrington had passed his brain fingerprinting test, he recanted his testimony and the prosecution threw up its hands. Harrington was set free. In Macon County, Mo., Sheriff Robert Dawson learned about the method from his secretary, who had also seen it featured on television. In 1999, Dawson ordered a test on J. B. Grinder, accused of raping and murdering a 25-year-old woman. Grinder had admitted and denied the allegations so many times that, according to Dawson, We didnt know what to believe anymore. Confronted with the test results, which seemed to confirm one of Grinders many confessions, Grinder pled guilty to the charges and also admitted to killing three other girls in Arkansas. When another murder investigation ran into problems earlier this year, Dawson turned again to brain fingerprinting. He refrained from discussing the details of the case with the suspect and with the media so that the P300 probes would be valid. While the suspect denied knowing anything about the case, Farwells test suggested otherwise. Comparison with other technologies: Conventional fingerprinting and DNA match physical evidence from a crime scene with evidence on the person of the perpetrator. Similarly, Brain Fingerprinting matches informational evidence from the crime scene with evidence stored in the brain. Fingerprints and DNA are available in only 1% of crimes. The brain is always there, planning, executing, and recording the suspects actions. Brain Fingerprinting has nothing to do with lie detection. Rather, it is a scientific way to determine if someone has committed a specific crime or other act. No questions are asked and no answers are given during Farwell Brain Fingerprinting. As with DNA and fingerprints, the results are the same whether the person has lied or told the truth at any time. Admissibility of Brain Fingerprinting in court: The admissibility of Brain Fingerprinting in court has not yet been established. The following well established features of Brain Fingerprinting, however, will be relevant when the question of admissibility is tested in court. 1) Brain Fingerprinting has been thoroughly and scientifically tested. 2) The theory and application of Brain Fingerprinting have been subject to peer review and publication. 3) The rate of error is extremely low virtually nonexistent and clear standards governing scientific techniques of operation of the technology have been established and published. 4) The theory and practice of Brain Fingerprinting have gained general acceptance in the relevant scientific community. 5) Brain Fingerprinting is non-invasive and non-testimonial. Record of 100% Accuracy: At the time of this first field application, Dr. Farwells successes in the scientific laboratory with his invention were already well known. In collaboration with FBI scientist Dr. Drew Richardson, Dr. Farwell achieved 100% accuracy in using Farwell Brain Fingerprinting to identify FBI agents based on their brain responses to words and phrases only an FBI agent would recognize. Tests conducted by Dr. Farwell for the US Navy in collaboration with Navy LCDR Rene S. Hernandez, Ph.D., also resulted in 100% accurate results. In research on contract with a US government intelligence agency, Farwell Brain Fingerprinting achieved 100% accuracy in proving the presence or absence of a wide variety of evidence stored in the brains of individuals involved in over 120 cases. Dr. Farwell has published extensively in the scientific literature and presented his research to many scientific and technical audiences throughout the world . Farwell Brain Fingerprinting has been subjected to rigorous peer review under US government sponsorship, and has been found scientifically viable as well as revolutionary in its implications. Conclusion: Brain Fingerprinting is a revolutionary new scientific technology for solving crimes, identifying perpetrators, and exonerating innocent suspects, with a record of 100% accuracy in research with US government agencies, actual criminal cases, and other applications. The technology fulfills an urgent need for governments, law enforcement agencies, corporations, investigators, crime victims, and falsely accused, innocent suspects.